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Axis powers
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Western Allies, Allied colonies and China after 1941 USSR and allies Axis Powers, Axis occupied territories and Vichy France Neutral countries
The Axis Powers, also interpreted as Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those countries opposed to the Allies during World War II. The three major Axis powers, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan were part of a military alliance on the signing of the Tripartite Pact on September 1940, which officially founded the Axis powers. At their zenith, the Axis powers ruled empires that dominated large parts of Europe, East and Southeast Asia, northern Africa and the Pacific Ocean, but World War II ended with their total defeat. Like the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, and some nations entered and later left the Axis during the course of the war.
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The term was first used by Benito Mussolini, in November 1936, when he spoke of a Rome-Berlin axis arising out of the treaty of friendship signed between Italy and Germany on October 25, 1936. Mussolini declared that the two countries would form an "axis" around which the other states of Europe would revolve. This treaty was forged when Italy, originally opposed to Germany, was faced with opposition to its war in Abyssinia from the League of Nations and received support from Germany. Later, in May 1939, this relationship transformed into an alliance, called by Mussolini the "Pact of Steel".
The term "Axis powers" formally took the name after the Tripartite Pact was signed by Germany, Italy and Japan on September 27, 1940 in Berlin, Germany. The pact was subsequently joined by Hungary (November 20, 1940), Romania (November 23, 1940), Slovakia (November 24, 1940) and Bulgaria (March 1, 1941). The Italian name Roberto briefly acquired a new meaning from "Rome-Berlin-Tokyo" between 1940 and 1945. Its most militarily powerful members were Germany and Japan. These two nations had also signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with each other as allies before the Tripartite Pact in 1936.
The three major Axis powers were the original signatories to the Tripartite Pact:
Germany was the principal Axis power in Europe and also in the world. Its official name was Deutsches Reich (German Reich), and after 1943, Grossdeutsches Reich (Greater German Reich), but during this period is most commonly known as Nazi Germany after its ruling National Socialist German Workers Party. Germany was headed by Führer and Chancellor Adolf Hitler, a dictator who as Chancellor had seized absolute power in 1934 upon the death of President Paul von Hindenburg. Hitler merged the offices of President and Chancellor and declared himself Führer. During the last days of the war, Admiral Karl Dönitz succeeded Hitler as Reichspräsident (but not as Führer).
Germany's motive for the war was avenging the perceived humiliation suffered in 1919 at the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I and pursuing the Nazi plan of creating a vast German empire across Europe in which inferior races would be eliminated, such as as Jews, Slavs, and Poles all to be replaced by the Germans of the so-called "Aryan Race".
The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to cede all of its overseas colonies and to make major land concessions to its neighbors, especially Poland. The German province of East Prussia was separated from mainland Germany due to the creation of the so-called Polish Corridor, a section of land with a mixed population of Germans and Poles linking Poland to the Baltic Sea. Also, the Treaty of Versailles forbade German-populated Austria or the German-populated Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia from unifying with Germany, to the frustration of the popular Pan-German nationalist movement. The Polish Corridor was a contentious issue for Germany in 1939, as Germans held a plurality in most of the defined area.
The creation of the Free City of Danzig was another controversy, as it was separated from Germany even though it was overwhelmingly populated by Germans. Further, the city been run by a Nazi regime since 1933, which wished to join Germany in opposition to the desire of Poland for it to remain separate. In 1939, Germany demanded that Poland allow Danzig to join Germany as well as concede the Polish Corridor. The Polish government refused. Finally on September 1, 1939, German agents disguised themselves as Polish soldiers and "raided" a German town, in which they broadcast a variety of anti-German phrases in Polish via radio. The "raiders" were then officially arrested and later released. The Nazi regime used the incident as a pretext, claiming that Poland had declared war on Germany. The invasion of Poland quickly followed, precipitating World War II.
At the start of the Second World War Germany included Austria, with which it annexed in 1938, the Sudetenland, which was ceded by Czechoslovakia in 1938, and Memelland which was ceded by Lithuania in 1939. The Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, created in 1939, was de facto part of Germany, although technically a Czech state under German protection.
Germany annexed additional territory during the course of the Second World War. On September 2, 1939, the day after the German invasion of Poland, the pro-Nazi government of the Free City of Danzig voted to reunite with Germany. On October 10, 1939, after the defeat and occupation of Poland, Hitler issued decrees annexing the Polish Corridor, West Prussia and Upper Silesia, all formerly German territories lost to Poland under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The remainder of Poland was organized into the "Government General for the Occupied Polish Territories" for eventual annexation to the Reich.
On its western frontier, Germany made additional annexations after its defeat of France and occupation of Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg in 1940. Germany immediately annexed the predominantly German Eupen-Malmedy from Belgium in 1940, placing the rest of the country under military occupation. Luxembourg, an independent grand duchy formerly associated with Germany, was formally annexed in 1942. Alsace-Lorraine, a region claimed by both Germany and France for centuries, was likewise annexed in 1942. In the Balkans, Slovenia was annexed in 1941 after Yugoslavia was occupied and dismembered.
After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Greater Germany was enlarged to include parts of Poland occupied by the Soviet Union in 1939. A Ministry of Eastern Territories was organized to administer the Baltic States, the Ukraine and Russia after they had been seized from the Soviet Union.
Other territories occupied by the Germans were subject to separate civilian commissariats or to direct military rule.
Japan was the principal Axis power in Asia and the Pacific. Officially known as Dai Nippon Teikoku meaning Empire of Greater Japan, known commonly as Imperial Japan for its imperial ambitions toward Asia and the Pacific.
Japan was ruled by emperor Hirohito. The constitution prescribed that "The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution" (article 4) and that "The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy" (article 11). Under the imperial institution were a political cabinet and Imperial General Headquarters with two chief of staff. Fumimaro Konoe and Hideki Tojo, had the longest terms as prime ministers. For the Army and the Navy, Prince Kan'in, Hajime Sugiyama, prince Hiroyasu Fushimi and Osami Nagano occupied the functions of chief of staff for most of the war.
Japan's first major belligerent action was in the Second Sino-Japanese War against the Republic of China. The Japanese invasion and harsh occupation resulted in numerous atrocities against civilians such as the Nanking massacre and the Three Alls Policy of scorched earth. Even though not officially involved, many Americans rushed to help the Chinese, and American airmen helped the Chinese. The United States also instituted in 1941 an embargo against Japan, cutting off the supply of raw materials and oil needed for its industry and war effort. As a result, Japan had a large number of troops fighting in China against the Nationalists, but also engaged the Americans, the Canadians, the British (together with Australians and Indians), and the Philippines in the wider Pacific War. The Soviet Union also fought skirmishes with Japanese forces in Manchukuo in 1938 & 1939. The Soviets formally declared war in August, 1945 and engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China during Operation August Storm.
Japan's reasons for joining the axis were firstly its needs to be a self-sufficient world power by acquiring more natural resources and secondly to expand its imperialist ambitions in the form of territorial expansion. Japan needed raw materials and also oil, the oil fields in the South East Asia - specifically the Dutch East Indies. With European colonial powers the focused with the war in Europe, Japan sought to acquire their colonies. Only the United States stood to oppose Japanese ambitions, with American embargoes being a major factor. In order to isolate American forces in the Phillipines and American naval power, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1941. The Japanese also invaded Malaysia and Hong Kong. The following day President Franklin D. Roosevelt asked the US Congress to declare war on Japan, saying that December 7 would be "a date which will live in infamy." The Japanese initially were able to inflict a series of defeats against the allies, however by 1943 American industrial strength was made apparent and the Japanese were pushed back towards the home islands. The Pacific War lasting until the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
At its height, Japan's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere included Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, large parts of China, Malaysia, French Indochina, Dutch East Indies, The Philippines, Burma, some of India, and various other Pacific Islands - specifically in the central Pacific.
Italy was the other major European member of the Axis with two incarnations, both under the leadership of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Its first incarnation was officially known as Regno d'Italia meaning Kingdom of Italy.
Italy's motive for war was its Fascist regime's intention to create a "New Roman Empire" in which Italy would return as a major world power and dominate the Mediteranean Sea, which the Fascists, Italian nationalists and Ancient Romans had called Mare Nostrum (Latin for "Our Sea"). The reunification of Italy in 1861 led to it to become a sovereign independent state. Although Venezia was regained in 1866, Trentino however, still remained under Austro-Hungarian rule. In the late 19th Century after the reunification, a nationalist movement grew around the concept of Italia irredenta which advocated the incorporation of Italian-speaking areas under foreign rule into Italy, namely(but not restricted to) Trentino, Istria and Dalmatia.
Italian nationalists also wished establish a colonial empire in order to raise the country's prestige. First, Tunisia was considered because of it's geographical proximity to Italy, however the French were able to establish their rule in 1881. Many Italians were angered by this move, the loss of a potential colony and became warry of French intentions. The homeland of the Italian monarchy, Savoy, had been to be given to the French in 1860 in exchange for French recognition of the new Italian state, this left tensions between the monarchy and France, many Italians desired the return of Savoy. Italy became a member of the Triple Alliance in 1882. In the 1880's Italian colonies were established in East Africa in the form of Italian Somaliland and Eritrea, however the conquest of Abyssinia(presnt day Ethiopia) in 1895-96 resulted in an Italian invasion force being defeated at Adowa, the defeat was a humiliation for the Italians. The Italo-Turkish War led to the incorporation of Libya and the Dodecanese Islands into the Italian Empire.
In 1914, at the outset of World War I, Italy remained neutral. Although a member of Triple with Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy did not join the Central Powers. Italian public opinion was unenthusiastic about their country's alignment with Austria-Hungary, a past enemy of Italian unification, and whose Italian-majority districts in the Trentino and Istria were seen as Italia irredenta. In 1915, the London Pact was signed between the Entente powers and Italy — in return for it's entrance into the war against Austria-Hungary, Italy was promised Trentino and Istria, coastal Dalmatia and parts of German colonies. Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary in May and on Germany the following year, over 600,000 Italians would be killed or wounded during the conflict. In 1919, however, although Italy gained the Italian-populated territories of Trentino and Istria, it received only a small portion of Dalmatia and a few tiny Adriatic islands - not all of what it was promised. The London pact was nullified with the treaty of Versailles. Italian nationalists and the public saw this as an injustice and an outrage, there had been over 600,000 Italians causualties. Nationalist paramilitaries seized the Yugoslav town of Fiume following the war, this resentment together with internal discontent and a economic downturn allowed the Italian Fascists under Benito Mussolini to rise to power in 1922.
The Kingdom of Italy was then ruled by Benito Mussolini in the name of King Victor Emmanuel III. The Fascists promised to regain Italy's honor and rhetoric was used for the long held a desire for a new Italian Empire, reminiscent of the powerful Roman Empire, Mussolini's new empire was to rule over the Mediterranean and North Africa. This new empire would also avenge past the betrayal of the Versailles treaty. Promised to the Italian people was "a place in the sun", to compete with the large colonial empires possessed by the United Kingdom and France at the time. The Fascist regime was quite popular amongst Italians in the lead up to war with its nationalist agenda.
In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia in order to incorporate into it's empire, acquire it's resources and avenge the defeat at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. The League of Nations protested, however no serious action was taken. The conquest was complete on May 7, 1936 with Victor Emmanuel III being crowned the Emperor of Ethiopia on May 9. In 1936, Italian Somaliland, Eritrea and Ethopia were joined and incorporated into the newly formed Italian East Africa. In 1937 Italy left the League of Nations.
In 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact which was signed by Germany and Japan the preceding year. The closeness of the two ideologies and mutual disdain by both leaders of the Treaty of Versailles and the two countries' isolation in the diplomatic arena, brought Hitler and Mussolini together, putting away previous tensions between the two regimes over the issue of Austrian independence, the status of the German of South Tyrol and the issue anti-Semitism which the Italian Fascists and most Italians did not sympathize with (as a number of Fascists were Jewish). In 1938, the regimes of Germany and Italy synthesized their agendas, with Fascist Italy reluctantly adopting anti-Semitism in 1938 in which a number of Jewish ex-Fascists were arrested, followed by Nazi Germany abandoning all political ties with the Germans of South Tyrol, saying that all the Germans of Italy would have to accept Italianization or leave Italy entirely. With this achieved, Germany and Italy had no remaining disputes and the alliance became secure. Italians also served with German Volunteers during the Spanish Civil War.
In March/April 1939 Italian troops invaded and occupied Albania. Albania become a de facto protectorate and was joined in a "personal union" with Italy when Victor Emmanuel III was crowned the King of Albania. Germany and Italy also signed the Pact of Steel on May 22.
Italy entered World War II on June 10, 1940 in the final stages of the battle of France when it seemed that the war would soon be over. Italy invaded southern France, the territories of Savoy and Nice to given to Italy by the newly formed Vichy France. In September 1940, Germany Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact.(Also known as the Axis Pact)
The Italians also launched two invasions, one against the British in Egypt the other against Greece. The Italians hoped to joined up to their colonies in East Africa by way of Eqypt and annex Greece as part of the new Italian Empire. However, by 1941, the Italians had suffered multiple military failures, it was only through German intervention in Yugoslavia, the Operation Marita and North Africa (German Africa Corps) that Italy managed avert a major defeat. With the occupation Vichy France in 1942, Italy gained parts of southeastern France including Nice and Corsica. However this was not to last, the Italian people had lost faith in Mussolini and no longer supported the war; Italy had lost it's colonies, the allies had taken North Africa in May 1943 and Sicily had been invaded in July 1943.
On July 25, 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini, placed him under arrest, and began secret negotiations with the Allies. Italy signed an armistice with the Allies on September 8, 1943 and later joined the Western Allies as a co-beligerant. The Italians soon fielded a co-belligerant Army, Navy, and Air Force.
On September 12, 1943, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans (Operation Oak) and soon a puppet state with him as its figurehead was formed in northern Italy (see "German puppet states" below). Mussolini excercised little real power and Italy continued as a member of the Axis Tripartite Pact in name only. Mussolini's resurrected Fascist state was known as the Salò Republic (Repubblica di Salò) or the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana, or RSI).
Several minor powers formally adhered to the Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan in this order:
Hungary, ruled by Admiral Miklós Horthy as Regent, was the first power to adhere to the Tripartite Pact of Germany, Italy, and Japan signing the agreement on November 20, 1940. Hungary's foreign policy under Horthy was driven by the ambition to recover the territories lost through the imposition on her of the Trianon Treaty. Hungary drew closer to Germany and Italy largely because of the shared desire to revise the peace settlements made after the First World War.
Hungary's motive for war was like that of Germany: the country suffered territorial losses when Austria-Hungary collapsed. As a kingdom within a dual-monarchy, Hungary had vast territories including all of Slovakia, Transylvannia and parts of Croatia which connected Hungary to the Mediterranean Sea. After the war, Hungary became a landlocked country, and lost territories containing Hungarians to Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. Political instability razed the country until a regency was established by Miklos Horthy, a Hungarian nobleman and Austro-Hungarian naval officer, became Regent in 1920, ruling the kingdom in the absence of an acknowledged king. In Hungary, nationalism was strong as well as anti-Semitism which drew Hungarian nationalists to support the Nazi regime in Germany. Hungary became allied to the Axis powers in 1940, but had received favourable territorial settlements since 1938 to 1939 from Germany in the Vienna Awards, during the collapse of Czechoslovakia. Hungary entered the Axis powers largely in the fear than Germany may take favour to Romania if it did not; Romania itself would become an Axis member one year later. In 1940, Hungary was rewarded further by being granted sections of Transylvannia from Romania.
Following political upheaval in Yugoslavia which threatened its continued membership in the Tripartite Pact, Hungary permitted German troops to transit its territory for a military invasion and occupation of that country. On April 11, 1941, five days after Germany invaded Yugoslavia and had largely destroyed the Yugoslav army, Hungary invaded Yugoslavia, occupying border territories. Hungary participated in the partition of Yugoslavia. In response, Great Britain immediately broke off diplomatic relations with Hungary.
Hungary was not asked to participate in the German invasion of the Soviet Union, which began on June 22, 1941 with attacks from German, Finnish and Romanian forces as well as a declaration of war by Italy. Currying favor with Germany, Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union five days later on June 27, 1941. Hungary raised over 200,000 troops for Eastern Front, and all three of its field armies participated in the war against the Soviet Union, although by far the largest and the most significant was the Hungarian Second Army.
On November 26, 1941, Hungary was one of 13 signatories to the revived Anti-Comintern Pact. The other sigatories were: Germany, Japan, Italy, Spain, Manchukuo, Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, Romania, Slovakia, and the Nanking regime of Wang Chingwei.
On December 6, 1941, Great Britain declared war on Hungary. Several days later, Hungary declared war on Great Britain and the United States of America. The United States declared war on Hungary on June 5 1942.
Hungarian troops advanced far into Soviet territory, but in the Soviet counteroffensive of 1943, the Hungarian Second Army was almost completely annihilated in fighting near Voronezh on the banks of the Don River.
In 1944, as Soviet troops neared Hungarian territory, German troops occupied Hungary. After the German occupation of Hungary, Horthy was forced to abdicate after his son was kidnapped by the Germans. Hitler and Horthy had disagreed on the way to handle Hungarian Jews. In Horthy's place Ferenc Szalasi, head of the Fascist Arrow Cross, was put in control of Hungary. When Soviet troops entered Budapest he fled to Austria and in 1946 was returned to Hungary and hanged for war crimes.
The Hungarian First Army continued to fight the Red Army even after Hungary had been completely occupied by the Soviet Union, not disbanding until May 8, 1945. Hungary remained as the last fighting Tripartite ally of Germany-Japan.
Romania, under King Michael and the military government of Ion Antonescu, adhered to the Tripartite Pact on November 23, 1940.
Romania entered the First World War in 1916 on the Allied side, but called for peace when its ally, the Russian Empire, collapsed in November 1917. Romania became a German vassal under the Treaty of Bucharest, but when Germany itself suffered defeat in the West, the Treaty of Bucharest was voided. Romania then saw its borders greatly enlarged in the peace treaties imposed on Germany and her allies.
Following the blueprints of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, the Soviet Union and Germany exploited the fall of France to revise the terms of those peace treaties, reducing Romania in size. On June 28, 1940, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza County. Germany forced Romania to cede Northern Transylvania to Hungary on August 30, 1940 in the second Vienna Award. Germany also forced Romania to give up Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria on September 5, 1940.
In an effort to please Hitler and obtain German protection, King Carol II appointed the General Ion Antonescu Prime Minister on September 6, 1940. Two days later, Antonescu forced the king to abdicate, installed the king's young son Michael on the throne, and declared himself Conducător (Leader) with dictatorial powers.
German troops entered the country on 1941, and used it as a base for its invasions of both Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. Romania was also a key supplier of resources, especially oil and grain.
Romania joined Germany in invading the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. Not only was Romania a base for the invasion, the country contributed nearly 300,000 troops - more than any other minor Axis power - to the war against the Soviet Union. German and Romanian troops quickly overran Moldova, which was again incorporated into Romania. Romania fought together with the German Army for the control of the Crimea Peninsula and Romanian Armies 3 and 4 were involved even in the battle of Stalingrad.
After the Soviets turned back the German invasion and pushed the front line into Romania, Romania switched to the Allied side on August 23, 1944.
The Slovak Republic under President Jozef Tiso signed the Tripartite Pact on November 24, 1940.
Slovakia had been closely aligned with Germany almost immediately from its declaration of independence from Czechoslovakia on March 14, 1939. Slovakia entered into a treaty of protection with Germany on March 23, 1939. Slovak troops joined the German invasion of Poland, fighting to reclaim territories lost in 1918.
Slovakia declared war on the Soviet Union in 1941 and signed the revived Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941. Slovak troops fought on Germany's Eastern Front, with Slovakia furnishing Germany with two divisions totalling 20,000 men. Slovakia declared war on Great Britain and the United States of America in 1942.
Slovakia was spared German military occupation until the Slovak National Uprising, which began on August 29, 1944 and was almost immediately crushed by the Waffen SS and Slovak troops loyal to Jozef Tiso, the Catholic priest-turned-dictator of Slovakia.
After the war, Tiso was executed and Slovakia was rejoined with Czechoslovakia. Slovakia and the Czech Republic finally separated into independent states in 1993.
Bulgaria, under its king Boris III, signed the Tripartite Pact on March 1, 1941. Bulgaria had been an ally of Germany in the First World War, and like Germany and Hungary, sought a revision of the peace terms, specifically the restoration of territories lost in Macedonia and Aegean Thrace.
Bulgaria drew closer to Nazi Germany during the 1930s. In 1940, under the terms of the Treaty of Craiova, Germany forced Romania to return Southern Dobrudja to Bulgaria, ceded in 1913.
Bulgaria participated in the German invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece, and annexed Vardar Banovina (today's Republic of Macedonia) from Yugoslavia and eastern Greek Macedonia and Western Thrace from Greece. Bulgarian armed forces garrisoned in the Balkans battled various resistance movements. Despite mounting German pressure, Bulgaria did not join the German invasion of the Soviet Union that began on 22 June 1941 and never declared war on this country. However, despite the lack of official declarations of war by both sides, the Bulgarian Navy was involved in a number of skirmishes with the Soviet Black Sea Fleet, which attacked Bulgarian shipping.
The Bulgarian government was forced by the Germans to declare war on the United States and United Kingdom. The 'symbolic' war against the Western Allies, however, turned into a disaster for the citizens of Sofia and other major Bulgarian cities, as they were heavily bombed by the USAAF and RAF in 1943 and 1944.
As the Red Army approached the Bulgarian border, on September 2, 1944, a coup brought to power a new government which sought peace with the Allies. However, on September 5 the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria and the Red Army marched into the country, meeting no resistance. A new government of the Fatherland Front took power on September 9 and Bulgarian troops fought on the Allies' side throughout the rest of the war. Bulgaria kept Southern Dobrudja but lost the occupied parts of the Aegean region and Vardar Macedonia, with 150,000 Bulgarians being expelled from Western Thrace.
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia, under the regency of Prince Paul, was briefly a member of the Axis in 1941.
Prince Paul adhered to the Tripartite Pact on March 25, 1941, but was removed from office two days later by a coup that ended his regency. The new Yugoslav government declared that it would be bound by the treaty, but Hitler suspected that the British were behind the coup against Prince Paul and vowed to destroy the country.
The German invasion began on April 6, 1941. Multi ethnic country was from creation under heavy Serbian domination and had unsolved national question, so, most of the peoples had no motive to fight. Resistance crumbled after just two weeks.
Group of Croatian nationalists Ustashe controled by Italy and Germany declared the independence of Croatia on April 10, 1941 as the "Independent State of Croatia" and joined the Axis. The government of Serbia was reorganized as the "National Government of Salvation" under General Milan Nedić on September 1, 1941 (see "German puppet states" below). Nedić maintained that his Serb government was the lawful successor to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and his troops wore the uniform of the Royal Yugoslav Army, but unlike the generous treatment accorded the Independent State of Croatia, the German treated Nedić's Serbia as a puppet state. Serbia under Nedić's puppet regime was also first officially "Juden frei" country. Unlike Croatia, Serbia was treated as occupied territory with Germans killing 100 Serbs for every killed German soldier. That led to pacification of Serbia with most Serbs either passive or with Chetniks who also remained passive of fighting Partisans together with Germans. In September 1944. supreme partisan command declared abolition for Chetniks who join partisans. After that most of Chetnics changed sides.
The remainder of Yugoslavia was divided among the other Axis powers. Germany annexed Slovenia. Italy annexed coastal parts of Croatia Dalmatia and islands, and Albania annexed Montenegro. Hungary annexed border territories, and Bulgaria annexed Macedonia.
Ivan Mihailov's Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) welcomed the Bulgarian annexation of Vardar Macedonia. In early September 1944, when the Bulgarian government left the Axis, Germany offered Mihailov support to declare Macedonia's independence, but he declined.
Declared on April 10, 1941, the Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, abbrev. NDH) was a member of the Axis powers until the end of Second World War, its forces fighting for Germany even after NDH had been overrun by the Allied Yugoslav Partisans. Ante Pavelić, a Croatian nationalist and one of the founders of the Croatian Uprising (Ustaše) Movement, was proclaimed Leader (Poglavnik) of the new state on April 24, 1941.
Pavelić led a Croatian delegation to Rome and offered the crown of Croatia to an Italian prince of the House of Savoy, who was crowned Tomislav II, King of Croatia, Prince of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Voivode of Dalmatia, Tuzla and Temun, Prince of Cisterna and of Belriguardo, Marquess of Voghera, and Count of Ponderano. The next day, Pavelić signed the Contracts of Rome with Mussolini, ceding Dalmatia to Italy and fixing the permanent borders between Croatia and Italy. He was also received by the Pope. Move was considered as treason by most Croats and will spark resistance to Ustashe government, especially in Dalmatia as region whose parts where ceded to fascist Italy.
Its ruling fascist Ustashe movement utilized the motive that Croatians had been oppressed by the Serb-dominated Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and that Croatians deserved to have an independent nation after years of domination by foreign empires. While in Yugoslavia, many Croatian nationalists violently opposed the Serb-dominated Yugoslav monarchy and assassinated Yugoslavia's King Alexander together whit Macedonian VMRO organization. The regime enjoyed support amongst Croatian nationalists who were eager to destroy Yugoslavia and establish Croatia as independent state. In combat, mostly Ustashe forces fought hard against against Serbian Chetnik (also German allies) and communist Yugoslav Partisan guerrillas throughout the war. Regular forces [[domobran]Croatian Home Guard] usually fought against Serbian Chetnik and often joined or surrendered with weapons to antifascist Partisans.
Upon coming to power, Pavelić formed the Croatian Home Guard (Hrvatsko domobranstvo) as the official military force of Croatia. Originally authorized at 16,000 men, it grew to a peak fighting force of 130,000. The Croatian Home Guard included a small air force and navy, although its navy was restricted in size by the Contracts of Rome. In addition to the Croatian Home Guard, Pavelić also commanded the Ustaše militia. Some Croats also volunteered for the German Waffen SS.
The Ustaše government declared war on the Soviet Union, signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941 and sent troops to Germany's Eastern Front. Ustaše militia garrisoned the Balkans, battling the Partisans.
During the time of its existence, the Ustaše government applied racial laws on Serbs, Jews and Romas, and after June 1941 deported them to the Jasenovac concentration camp (or to camps in Poland). The exact number of victims of the Ustaše regime is uncertain due to the destruction of documents and varying numbers given by various historians vying for political clout. The total number of victims in Jasenovac is estimated to be between 56,000 and 97,000.[1] The racial laws were enforced by the Ustaše militia.
Although Ustaše had some support in all parts of Croatia, they were overall not well-liked, and wide popular support was limited to the traditionally most strongly nationalistic regions. The allegiances of the majority of the population were either with the multiethnic Anti-Fascist movement or neutral.
Thailand was a formal ally of Japan from January 25, 1942.
In the immediate aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces invaded Thailand's territory on the morning of December 8, 1941. Only hours after the invasion, Field Marshal Phibunsongkhram, the prime minister, ordered the cessation of resistance. On December 21, 1941, a military alliance with Japan was signed. Thailand declared war on the UK and the United States of America. The Thai ambassador to the United States, Mom Rajawongse Seni Pramoj did not deliver his copy of the declaration of war, so although the British reciprocated by declaring war on Thailand and consequently considered it a hostile country, the United States did not.
On May 10, 1942, the Thai Phayap Army entered Burma's Shan State. At one time in the past the area had been part of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. The boundary between the Japanese and Thai operations was generally the Salween. However, that area south of the Shan States known as Karenni States, the homeland of the Karens, was specifically retained under Japanese control.
Three Thai infantry and one cavalry division, spearheaded by armoured reconnaissance groups and supported ably by the air force, started their advance on May 10, and engaged the retreating Chinese 93rd Division. Kengtung, the main objective, was captured on May 27. Renewed offensives in June and November evicted the Chinese into Yunnan.
As the war dragged on, the Thai population came to resent the Japanese presence. In June 1944, Phibun was overthrown in a coup d'état. The new civilian government under Khuang Aphaiwong attempted to aid the resistance while at the same time maintaining cordial relations with the Japanese.
The Free Thai Movement ("Seri Thai") was established during these first few months. Parallel Free Thai organisations were established in the UK and inside Thailand. Queen Ramphaiphanni was the nominal head of the British-based organisation, and Pridi Phanomyong, the regent, headed its largest contingent, which was operating within the country. Aided by elements of the military, secret airfields and training camps were established while OSS and Force 136 agents fluidly slipped in and out of the country.
After the war, U.S. influence prevented Thailand from being treated as an Axis country, but the UK demanded three million tons of rice as reparations and the return of areas annexed from the British colony of Malaya during the war and invasion. Thailand also had to return the portions of British Burma and French Indochina that had been taken.
Phibun and a number of his associates were put on trial on charges of having committed war crimes, mainly that of collaborating with the Axis powers. However, the charges were dropped due to intense public pressure. Public opinion was favourable to Phibun, since he was thought to have done his best to protect Thai interests.
Finland was not a part of the Axis powers, but played a part in fighting against the Soviet Union to keep its independence[citation needed]. Having recently fought the Winter War against the Soviets, Finland allowed Germany to use Finnish territory as a base for Operation Barbarossa.
After the end of the Winter War against the Soviet Union in March 1940, Finland first sought protection from Great Britain[2][3] and neutral Sweden[4], but was thwarted by Soviet and German actions. This resulted in Finland drawing closer to Germany, first with an intent of enlisting German support as a counterweight to thwart continuing Soviet pressure, but later to help regain its lost territories.
Finland's role in Operation Barbarossa was laid out in German Chancellor Adolf Hitler's Directive 21, "The mass of the Finnish army will have the task, in accordance with the advance made by the northern wing of the German armies, of tying up maximum Russian strength by attacking to the west, or on both sides, of Lake Ladoga. The Finns will also capture Hanko." The directive was given December 18, 1940, over two months before Finnish High Command or civilian leadership received the first tentative hints to upcoming invasion.
In May 1941, at the suggestion of Germany, Finland allowed Germany to recruit Finnish volunteers for SS-Freiwilligen-Bataillon Nordost. This battalion, with an initial strength of 1200 men, was attached to the multinational Wiking Division of Germany's Waffen SS. Later, an additional 200 Finns joined the battalion to cover the losses.
In the weeks leading up to Operation Barbarossa, cooperation between Finland and Germany increased, with the exchange of liaison officers and the beginning of preparations for joint military action. On June 7, Germany moved two divisions into the Finnish Lapland. On June 17, 1941, Finland ordered its armed forces to be fully mobilized and sent to the Soviet border. Finland evacuated civilians from border areas which were fortified against Soviet attack. In the opening days of the Operation, Finland permitted German planes returning from bombing runs over Leningrad to refuel at Finnish airfields before returning to bases in German East Prussia. Finland also permitted Germany to use its naval facilities in the Gulf of Finland.
In his proclamation of war against the Soviet Union issued June 22, 1941, Hitler declared that Germany was joined by Finland and Romania. However, Finland did not declare war until June 25, after the Soviet Union bombed Finnish airfields and towns, including the medieval Turku castle, which was badly damaged. The Soviets cited Finland's cooperation with Germany as provocation for the air raids. Finland countered that it was once again a victim of Soviet aggression.
Finns refer to the conflict with the Soviet Union as the Continuation War, viewing it as continuation of the Winter War that the Soviets had waged against the Finns. The Finns maintain that their sole objective was to regain the territory lost to the Soviet Union in the Winter War, but on July 10, 1941, Field Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim issued an Order of the Day declaring that the war aim of the Finns was "to expel the Bolsheviks out of Russian Karelia, to liberate the Karelian nations and to accord to Finland a great future."
Mannerheim's order echoed his Order of the Day issued February 23, 1918, during the Finnish War of Independence, known as the Sword Scabbard Declaration, in which Mannerheim declared he "would not put his sword into the scabbard until East Karelia was free of Lenin's warriors and hooligans." Conquest of Karelia was a historic dream of Finnish nationalists advocating Greater Finland.
In all, Finland mobilized over 530,000 men against the Soviet Union. About 1,700 volunteers from Sweden and 2,600 from Estonia served in the Finnish army. Many of the Swedish volunteers had also fought for Finland in the Winter War.
Diplomatic relations between Great Britain and Finland were severed on August 1, 1941, after the British bombed German forces in the Finnish city of Petsamo. Great Britain repeatedly called on Finland to cease its offensive against the Soviet Union, and on December 6, 1941, declared war on Finland. War was never declared between Finland and the United States.
Finland signed the revived Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941. Unlike other Axis powers, Finland maintained command of its armed forces and pursued its war objectives independently of Germany. Finland refused German requests to participate in the Siege of Leningrad, stating that capturing Leningrad was not among its goals. Leningrad, now St. Petersburg, lies outside the territory of Karelia claimed for Finland by Mannerheim. Finland also granted asylum to Jews, and Jewish soldiers continued to serve in her army.
The relationship between Finland and Germany more closely resembled an alliance during the six weeks of the Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement, which was presented as a German condition for help with munitions and air support, as the Soviet offensive coordinated with D-Day threatened Finland with complete occupation. The agreement, signed by President Risto Ryti, but never ratified by the Finnish Parliament, bound Finland not to seek a separate peace.
Ryti's successor, President Mannerheim, ignored the agreement and opened secret negotiations with the Soviets. On September 19, 1944, Mannerheim signed an armistice with the Soviet Union and Great Britain. Under the terms of the armistice, Finland was obligated to expel German troops from Finnish territory. Finns refer to the skirmishes that followed as the Lapland War. In 1947, Finland signed a peace treaty with the Soviet Union, Great Britain and several British Commonwealth nations acknowledging its "alliance with Hitlerite Germany".
Iraq was a co-belligerent of the Axis, fighting the United Kingdom in the Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941.
Seizing power on April 3, 1941, the nationalist government of Iraqi Prime Minister Rashid Ali repudiated the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 and demanded that Britain close its military bases within the country. Ali sought support from Germany, Italy and Vichy France in expelling British forces from Iraq.
Hostilities between the Iraqi and British forces opened on April 18, 1941 with heavy fighting at the British air base at Lake Habbaniya. Iraq's Axis allies dispatched two air squadrons, one from the German Luftwaffe and the other from the Royal Italian Air Force. The Germans and Italians utilized Vichy French bases in Syria, precipitating fighting between British and French forces in Syria.
In early May 1941, Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, the Mufti of Jerusalem and an ally of Ali, declared "holy war" against the United Kingdom and called on Arabs throughout the Middle East to rise up against Britain. On May 25, 1941, Hitler issued his Order 30, stepping up German offensive operations: "The Arab Freedom Movement in the Middle East is our natural ally against England. In this connection special importance is attached to the liberation of Iraq... I have therefore decided to move forward in the Middle East by supporting Iraq."
Hitler dispatched German air and armored forces to Libya and formed the Deutsches Afrikakorps to coordinate a combined German-Italian offensive against the British in Egypt, Palestine and Iraq.
Iraqi military resistance ended by May 31, 1941. Rashid Ali and his ally, the Mufti of Jerusalem, fled to Persia, then to Turkey, Italy and finally Germany where Ali was welcomed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi government-in-exile.
In propaganda broadcasts from Berlin, the Mufti continued to call on Arabs to rise up against the United Kingdom and aid German and Italian forces. He also recruited Muslim volunteers in the Balkans for the Waffen SS.
The Empire of Japan created a number of puppet states in the areas occupied by its military, beginning with the creation of Manchukuo in 1932. These puppet states achieved varying degrees of international recognition.
Manchukuo was a Japanese puppet state in Manchuria, the northeast region of China. It was nominally ruled by Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, but in fact controlled by the Japanese military, in particular the Kwantung Army. While Manchukuo ostensibly meant a state for ethnic manchus, the region had a Han Chinese majority.
Following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the independence of Manchukuo was proclaimed on February 18, 1932 with Puyi as "Head of State." He was proclaimed Emperor of Manchukuo a year later. Twenty three of the League of Nations' eighty members recognised the new Manchu nation, but the League itself declared in 1934 that Manchuria lawfully remained a part of China, precipitating Japanese withdrawal from the League. Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union were among the major powers recognising Manchukuo. The county was also recognised by the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, El Salvador, and the Vatican. Manchukuo was also recognised by the other Japanese allies and puppet states, including Mengjiang, the Burmese government of Ba Maw, Thailand, the Wang Chingwei regime, and the Indian government of Subhas Chandra Bose.
The armed forces of Manchukuo numbered between 200,000 and 220,000 men, according to the Soviet intelligence estimates. The Manchukuo Army and Manchukuo Air Force garrisoned Manchukuo under the command of the Japanese Army. The Manchukuo Navy, including river patrol and coastal defense, were under the direct command of the Japanese Third Fleet. The Manchukuo Imperial Guard, numbering 200 men, was under the direct command of the Emperor and served as his bodyguard.
Mengjiang (alternatively spelled Mengchiang) was a Japanese puppet state in Inner Mongolia. It was nominally ruled by Prince Demchugdongrub, a Mongol nobleman descended from Genghis Khan, but was in fact controlled by the Japanese military. Mengjiang's independence was proclaimed on February 18, 1936 following the Japanese occupation of the region.
The Inner Mongolians had several grievances against the central Chinese government in Nanking, with the most important one being the policy of allowing unlimited migration of Han Chinese to this vast region of open plains and desert. Several of the young princes of Inner Mongolia began to agitate for greater freedom from the central government, and it was through these men that Japanese saw their best chance of exploiting Pan-Mongol nationalism and eventually seizing control of Outer Mongolia from the Soviet Union.
Japan created Mengjiang to exploit tensions between ethnic Mongolians and the central government of China which in theory ruled Inner Mongolia. The Japanese hoped to use pan-Mongolism to create a Mongolian ally in Asia and eventually conquer all of Mongolia from the Soviet Union.
When the various puppet governments of China were unified under the Wang Chingwei government in March 1940, Mengjiang retained its separate identity as an autonomous federation. Although under the firm control of the Japanese Imperial Army which occupied its territory, Prince Demchugdongrub had his own army that was, in theory, independent.
Mengjiang vanished in 1945 following Japan's defeat ending World War II and the invasion of Soviet and Red Mongol Armies. As the huge Soviet forces advanced into Inner Mongolia, they met limited resistance from small detachments of Mongolian cavalry, which, like the rest of the army, were quickly brushed aside.
A short-lived state was founded on March 29, 1940 by Wang Jingwei, who became Head of State of this Japanese supported collaborationist government based in Nanking.
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Japan advanced from its bases in Manchuria to occupy much of East and Central China. Several Japanese puppet states were organised in areas occupied by the Japanese Army, including the Provisional Government of the Republic of China at Peking which was formed in 1937 and the Reformed Government of the Republic of China at Nanking which was formed in 1938. These governments were merged into the Reorganised Government of the Republic of China at Nanking in 1940. The government (known as the Wang Jingwei Government) was to be run along the same lines as the Nationalist regime and adopted symbols of the latter.
The Nanking Government had no real power, and its main role was to act as a propaganda tool for the Japanese. The Nanking Government concluded agreements with Japan and Manchukuo, authorising Japanese occupation of China and recognising the independence of Manchukuo under Japanese protection. The Nanking Government signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941 and declared war on the United States and Great Britain on January 9, 1943.
The government had a strained relationship with the Japanese from the beginning. Wang's insistence on his regime being the true Nationalist government of China and in replicating all the symbols of the Kuomintang (KMT) led to frequent conflicts with the Japanese, the most prominent being the issue of the regime's flag, which was identical to that of the Republic of China.
The worsening situation for Japan from 1943 onwards meant that the Nanking Army was given a more substantial role in the defence of occupied China than the Japanese had initially envisaged. The army was almost continuously employed against the communist New Fourth Army.
Wang Jingwei died in a Tokyo clinic on November 10, 1944, and was succeeded by his deputy Chen Gongbo. Chen had little influence and the real power behind the regime was Zhou Fohai, the mayor of Shanghai. Wang's death dispelled what little legitimacy the regime had. The state stuttered on for another year and continued the display and show of a fascist regime.
On September 9, 1945, following the defeat of Japan, the area was surrendered to General He Yingqin, a nationalist general loyal to Chiang Kai-shek. The Nanking Army generals quickly declared their alliance to the Generalissimo, and were subsequently ordered to resist Communist attempts to fill the vacuum left by the Japanese surrender. Chen Gongbo was tried and executed in 1946.
Burmese nationalist leader Ba Maw formed a Japanese puppet state in Burma on August 1, 1942 after the Japanese Army seized control of the nation from the United Kingdom. The Ba Maw regime organised the Burma Defence Army (later renamed the Burma National Army), which was commanded by Aung San.
Jose P. Laurel was the President of the Second Republic of the Philippines, a Japanese puppet state organised on the Philippine Islands in 1942. In 1943, the Philippine National Assembly declared the Philippines an independent republic and elected Laurel as President. The Second Republic ended with the Japanese surrender. Laurel was arrested and charged with treason by the US government, but was granted amnesty and continued playing politics, ultimately winning a seat in the Philippine Senate.
The Provisional Government of Free India was a shadow government led by Subhas Chandra Bose, an Indian nationalist who rejected Gandhi's nonviolent methods for achieving independence. It operated only in those parts of India which came under Japanese control.
A former president of the India National Congress, Bose was arrested by Indian authorities at the outset of the Second World War. In January 1941 he escaped from house arrest and eventually reached Germany and then to Japan where he formed the Indian National Army, mostly from Indian prisoners of war.
Bose and A.M.Sahay, another local leader, received ideological support from Mitsuru Toyama, chief of the Dark Ocean Society along with Japanese Army advisers. Other Indian thinkers in favour of the Axis cause were Asit Krishna Mukherji, a friend of Bose, his wife Savitri Devi, a French writer admiring Hitler, and the Pandit Rajwade of Poona. Bose was helped by Rash Behari Bose, founder of the Indian Independence League in Japan. Bose declared India's independence on October 21 1943. The Japanese Army assigned to the Indian National Army a number of military advisors, among them Hideo Iwakuro and Saburo Isoda.
With its provisional capital at Port Blair on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after they fell to the Japanese, the state would last two more years until August 18, 1945 when it officially became defunct. In its existence it received recognition from nine governments: Germany, Japan, Italy, Croatia, Manchukuo, China (under the Nanking Government of Wang Chingwei), Thailand, Burma (under the regime of Burmese nationalist leader Ba Maw, and the Philippines under de facto (and later de jure) president José Laurel.
The Indian National Army saw plenty of action (as did their Burmese equivalent). The highlight of the force's campaign in Burma was the planting of the Indian national flag by the 'Bose Battalion' during the battle of Frontier Hill in 1944, although it was Japanese troops from the 55th Cavalry, 1/29th Infantry and 2/143rd Infantry who did most of the fighting. This battle also had the curious incidence of three Sikh companies of the Bose Battalion exchanging insults and fire with two Sikh companies of the 7/16th Punjab Regiment (British Indian Army)[citation needed].
The Indian National Army was encountered again during the Second Arakan Campaign, where they deserted in large numbers back to their old 'imperial oppressors' and again during the crossing of the Irrawaddy in 1945, where a couple of companies put up token resistance before leaving their Japanese comrades to fight off the assault crossing by 7th Indian Division.
The Empire of Vietnam was a short-lived Japanese puppet state that lasted from March 11 to August 23, 1945.
When the Japanese seized control of French Indochina, they allowed Vichy French administrators to remain in nominal control. This ruling ended on March 9, 1945 when the Japanese officially took control of the government. Soon after, Emperor Bảo Đại voided the 1884 treaty with France and Trần Trọng Kim, a historian, became prime minister.
Despite the state's short existence, it suffered through a famine and had succeeded in replacing French-speaking schools with Vietnamese language schools taught by Vietnamese scholars.
The Kingdom of Cambodia was a short-lived Japanese puppet state that lasted from March 9, 1945 to April, 15 1945.
In mid-1941, the Japanese entered Cambodia, but allowed Vichy French officials to remain in administrative posts. The Japanese calls of an "Asia for the Asiatics" won over many Cambodian nationalists, despite Tokyo's policy of keeping the colonial government in nominal control.
This policy changed during the last months of the war. The Japanese wanted to gain local support, so they dissolved French colonial rule and pressured Cambodia to declare its independence within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Four days later, King Sihanouk declared Kampuchea (the original Khmer pronunciation of Cambodia) independent. Co-editor of the Nagaravatta, Son Ngoc Thanh, returned from Tokyo in May and was appointed foreign minister.
On the date of Japanese surrender, a new government was proclaimed with Son Ngoc Thah as prime minister. However, in October, when the Allies occupied Phnom Penh, Son Ngoc Thanh was arrested for collaborating with the Japanese and was exiled to France. Some of his supporters went to north-western Cambodia, which had been under Thai control since the French-Thai War of 1940, where they banded together as one faction in the Khmer Issarak movement, originally formed with Thai encouragement in the 1940s.
Fears of Thai irredentism led to the formation of the first Lao nationalist organisation, the Movement for National Renovation, in January 1941, led by Prince Phetxarāt and supported by local French officials, though not by the Vichy authorities in Hanoi. This group wrote the current Lao national anthem and designed the current Lao flag, while paradoxically pledging support for France. The country declared its independence in 1945.
There matters rested until the liberation of France in 1944, bringing Charles de Gaulle to power. This meant the end of the alliance between Japan and the Vichy French administration in Indochina. The Japanese had no intention of allowing the Gaullists to take over, and in late 1944 they staged a military coup in Hanoi. Some French units fled over the mountains to Laos, pursued by the Japanese, who occupied Viang Chan in March 1945 and Luang Phrabāng in April. King Sīsavāngvong was detained by the Japanese, but his son Crown Prince Savāngvatthanā called on all Lao to assist the French, and many Lao died fighting aga